Method

Results

As previously mentioned, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed in order to identify if the variables are normally distributed. This condition was not met in any of the cases (p <= .041), so the choice of statistical analyzes was based on these results.

In order to answer the first objective of this research, some linear regression analyzes were initially performed to test the assumptions of error independence and non-multicollinearity of the variables. Regarding the first assumption, it was found that Durbin-Watson scores between 1 and 3 were identified for the dependent variables, which meets the independence of errors (positive emotional experience= 1.933, negative= 1.888, prosperity= 1.906 and life satisfaction= 1.822).

Regarding the second assumption, coefficients were found that indicated multicollinearity, so the decision was to carry out a second-order factor analysis and thus be able to comply with this requirement. The factor groupings were as follows: factor 1 integrated all the optimism factors, factor 2 comprised of all the resilience factors together with the ability to receive support (named from this moment “resilience +”) and finally, factor 3 was formed with the two rumination factors. Having already carried out these analyzes, the logistic regressions were carried out and the dependent variables were positive emotional experience, negative emotional experience, prosperity and life satisfaction. The predictor variables were optimism, resilience+ and rumination.

Positive Emotional Experience. For the logistic regression analysis, the zero block indicates that there is an 89% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable, assuming that most people experience high positive emotions. For block one of the model the ROA statistical efficiency score indicates that there is a significant improvement in the prediction of the probability of occurrence of the positive emotional experience (X ²=44,649; df=3; p=.000). Nagelkerke's R² indicates that the proposed model explains 23.7% of the variance of the concerned dependent variable (0.237). However, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test indicates that the variance explained by the model explains a non-significant percentage of variance (0.522).

For the logistic regression analysis, block one indicates that there is an 89.8% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable (positive emotional experience) when rumination, optimism and resilience have been integrated into the prediction. And it is observed that as the optimism score increases, the positive emotional experience increases more. The score for the tested model indicates that the optimism variable contributes significantly to the prediction of the dependent variable (positive emotional experience). The results obtained from this model can be generalized to the sample (see Table 1).

Table 1: Prediction of the Probability of Occurrence of the Positive Emotional Experience 

Negative Emotional Experience. For the logistic regression analysis, the zero block indicates that there is an 86% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable, assuming that most people feel high negative emotional experience. For block one of the model, the ROA statistical efficiency score indicates that there is a significant improvement in the prediction of the probability of occurrence of the negative emotional experience (X ²=56,966; df = 3; p=.000). Nagelkerke's R² indicates that the proposed model explains 20.7% of the variance of the dependent variable under study (.207). However, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test indicates that the variance explained by the model explains a non-significant percentage of variance (0.755). For the logistic regression analysis, block one indicates that there is an 86.6% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable (negative emotional experience) when rumination, optimism and resilience have been integrated into the prediction. It is also observed that, as the rumination score increases, the probability of negative emotional experience increases and with more optimism and resilience, this probability decreases. The score for the tested model indicates that the rumination, optimism and resilience variables contribute significantly to the prediction of the dependent variable (negative emotional experience). The results obtained from this model can be generalized to the sample (see Table 2).

Table 2: Prediction of the Probability of Occurrence of the Negative Emotional Experience 

Prosperity. For the logistic regression analysis, the zero block indicates that there is a 96.6% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable, assuming that most people feel high prosperity. For block one of the model, the ROA statistical efficiency score indicates that there is a significant improvement in the prediction of the probability of occurrence of prosperity (X ²=35,386; df=3; p=.000). Nagelkerke's R² indicates that the proposed model explains 37.0% of the variance of the prosperity variable (.370). However, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test indicates that the variance explained by the model explains a non-significant percentage of variance (0.816). For the logistic regression analysis, block one indicates that there is a 96.4% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable (prosperity) when rumination, optimism and resilience have been integrated into the prediction. And it is observed that as the rumination score increases, prosperity decreases and that, with more optimism and resilience, the probability of prosperity increases. The score for the tested model indicates that the rumination, optimism and resilience variables contribute significantly to the prediction of the dependent variable (prosperity). The results obtained from this model can be generalized to the sample (see Table 3).

Table 3: Prediction of the Probability of Occurrence of Prosperity 

Life satisfaction. For the logistic regression analysis, the zero block indicates that there is a 90.2% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable, assuming that most people feel high life satisfaction. For block one of the model, the ROA statistical efficiency score indicates that there is a significant improvement in the prediction of the probability of occurrence of life satisfaction (X ²=56,458; df=3; p=.000). Nagelkerke's R² indicates that the proposed model explains 30.9% of the variance of the life satisfaction variable (.309). However, the Hosmer and Lemeshow test indicates that the variance explained by the model explains a non-significant percentage of variance (0.440). For the logistic regression analysis, block one indicates that there is a 90.5% probability of correctness in the result of the dependent variable (life satisfaction) when rumination, optimism and resilience have been integrated into the prediction. And it is observed that as the rumination score increases, life satisfaction decreases and, more optimism means a greater probability of feeling more life satisfaction. The score for the tested model indicates that the rumination and optimism variables contribute significantly to the prediction of the dependent variable. The results obtained from this model can be generalized to the sample (see Table 4).

Table 4: Prediction of the Probability of Occurrence of Life Satisfaction 

Regarding the second objective of this study, comparative analyzes were performed between groups based on gender, age, and education. For the first case, the Mann Whitney U test was performed, which indicates the supremacy of women with respect to negative experience (SW-B) and the ability to receive support, while men scored higher in self-confidence. In the other cases, no statistically significant differences were observed (see Table 5).

Table 5: Differences between men and women 

Meanwhile, to examine the differences by age and by schooling, some Kruskal Wallis tests were performed. Based on age, some statistically significant differences were identified. They show that the group of 17 to 30 years old presented more rumination and negative experience (SW-B) compared to the other groups. The group of 31 to 44 years scored more in family support and structure (resilience) compared to the younger group, while the 45 to 62-year-old group had a more positive attitude and self-confidence (optimism), strength (resilience) as well as greater prosperity compared to the younger groups (see Table 6).

Table 6: Differences by age 

Finally, it was found that the secondary school sample scored more on obsessive reflection (rumination) compared to the undergraduates mainly. And these same participants (undergraduates) scored higher on all factors of resilience and optimism, prosperity and ability to receive support compared to those with secondary education (see Table 7).

Table 7: Differences by schooling 

Discussion

The objectives of this research were: 1) to identify the effect of rumination, optimism, resilience, and the ability to receive support in SW-B in Mexican adults, and 2) to explore whether gender, age, and schooling produce differences in the aforementioned variables.

To fulfill the first objective, some logistic regression analyzes were carried out that required the performance of a factor analysis of principal components (PCA) which unified the factors of each of the predictor variables (rumination, optimism and resilience) and added the ability to receive support the last one. These analyzes made it possible to identify -from the aforementioned predictors- the probability of occurrence of each of the components of the subjective well-being model proposed by ^{Diener (2009}) which is extensively studied around the world. Thus, it was observed that the high positive emotional experience (such as pleasure, happiness or joy) in the participants is due to the contribution of optimism. This may be because satisfactory feelings −such as those mentioned above− are more feasible when there is a more positive disposition towards future events. It is considered that from their own actions, an individual can be well, feel self-confidence and hope of what can happen in the immediate and mediate (^{Seligman, 1991}; ^{Snyder, 1994}). In agreement with this, in order to be able to predict an increase in the occurrence of the experience of negative emotions (such as fear, displeasure or sadness) an increase in rumination is necessary, as well as a decrease in optimism, resilience and the ability to receive support for. This can occur since both discomfort and obsessive reflection that one experiences, generates emotional malaise (R. ^{Sansone & L. Sansone, 2012}) that harms the person. In addition to this, being pessimistic and consequently having thoughts and emotions around disgust, annoyance, grief and suffering from the past, permeates the daily life, perpetuating stress and low psychosocial performance. This significantly undermines the necessary ability to move forward and the social support (^{Eisma & Stroebe, 2017}), which contradicts ^{Watkins et al. (2011}) when he points out that rumination has a positive edge, which should be examined more carefully.

On the other hand, positive attitude, internal control, self-confidence and hope (optimism), predict the probability of a feeling of high prosperity in the participants. According to ^{Diener (2009}), prosperity is a feeling of personal success, of their personal relationships and purposes in life, which nurtures and is nurtured by other personal attributes that facilitate and direct life −such as optimism− and providing well-being psychological.

Life satisfaction can occur −according to the findings of this research− when there is a decrease in rumination, that is, obsessive thoughts that generate discomfort and an increase in optimism (e.g. being positive even though it seems that what is coming will be negative, believing that if you work hard enough you can achieve anything, believing that no task is too difficult and that the future is promising). This is evident since the global judgment of well-being lies in the evaluation that a person makes of the quality of life by virtue of certain criteria such as his expectations. Optimism is represented precisely by the hope that what comes next is surmountable and positive no matter what needs to be done (^{Kleiman et al., 2017}), which automatically explains the role of rumination.

Regarding the second objective, the data shows that in terms of rumination, resilience, positive emotional experience, prosperity and life satisfaction, similarities were observed rather than differences. That is, both men and women tend to have −in equal measure− repetitive and recurrent thoughts about negative emotions experienced in the past (^{Ito et al., 2006}; ^{Michael et al., 2007}) they tend to show ability to cope, overcome, be strengthened or transformed by unfavorable experiences (^{Grotberg, 2003}), and have emotional experiences such as joy and happiness as well as feeling successful in life and feeling that their lives have been good. However, some statistically significant differences were observed, indicating that women showed a greater negative experience in the last month and more capacity to receive support; while men showed more self-confidence (optimism factor). This could be due to the fact that it is women who have been identified as more emotionally sensitive, encompassing negative emotions. That is, since they have developed more skills in this field, their experiences and expressions are more intense and expressive (e.g. ^{Feldman-Barret, Lane, Sechrest, & Schwartz, 2000}; ^{López Usero, 2016}). In addition to this, it has been observed that it is women who tend to establish closer personal relationships (^{Juárez Ramírez, Valdez Santiago, & Hernández Rosete, 2005}) where they tend to share more of their lives and emotions, thus evidencing their willingness to receive help, advice, etc. (^{Matud, Ibañez, Bethencourt, Marrero, & Carballeira, 2003}; ^{Pettus-Davis, Veeh, Davis, & Tripodi, 2018}).

When the possible differences in rumination, optimism, resilience, SW-B and ability for support by age were examined, some statistically significant differences were found that show that the group of 17 to 30 years presents more rumination and negative experience (SW-B) compared to older groups. This could be because in youth, people tend to appreciate life in such a way that they feel the discomfort of their mistakes or emotions from the past that may have been generated by inexperience, unlike the older groups who can find the positive in the little ones. details of life (^{Reig, 2000}). These results are consistent with what was indicated by ^{Nolen-Hoeksema and Aldao (2011}) and ^{Sütterlin et al. (2012}) who explain the phenomenon based on the idea that, as the years go by, people acquire more cognitive and affective resources to solve problems. Likewise, it was observed that the group of 31 to 44 years scored more in “family support” and “structure” compared to the younger group, which is logical −and related to the previous result− since as one gets older, more organization and order in life is acquired. This allows to keep busy and makes the situation more manageable in times of stress. This, together with the support networks that emerge through time, provide individuals with protection in times of need (^{Jiang, Drolet, & Kim, 2018}). Lastly, the 45 to 62-year-old group has a more positive attitude, self-confidence and strength, as well as greater prosperity compared to the younger ones, which is supported by ^{Londoño et al. (2014)} and ^{Schawaba et al. (2019)} who claim that the older they are, the more optimistic they are; the more they value relationships with others, the more constructive and wellness-oriented strategies they count on, which allows them to obtain more achievements in different spheres of life. This brings about a feeling of a more prosperous and successful life.

Finally, there were two main findings when exploring possible differences in the variables under study by schooling. On the one hand, it was found that the secondary school sample scored more in obsessive reflection mainly compared to the undergraduates, which may be due to the fact that less education means being less able to suppress this type of thinking (^{Delgado Suárez et al., 2008}), especially because they have probably experienced more difficult challenges to solve due to lack of experience and abilities. And, on the other hand, there is also the fact that those with undergraduate studies scored higher in all factors of optimism and resilience, prosperity and ability to receive support compared to those with secondary education. This is no surprise if we take into consideration that through education, studying provides resources that give the person greater possibilities of being happy even in spite of adversity. They can have more hope, a positive forecast of the future, be more cautious and deepen the analysis of the situation they face and thereby generate a better approach and solution (^{Giménez Hernández, 2005}; ^{Gómez Azcarate et al., 2014}; ^{Morales Rodríguez & Díaz Barajas, 2011}). In the same way, more personal relationships are developed that sensitize the person so that he or she can reckon the need for others. All this together, leads to the idea that these resources provided by education provide both material and psychological prosperity (^{Carmona Valdés, 2009}; ^{García & Hoffman, 2002}).

In conclusion, it can be said that SW-B is the product of some aspects mainly linked to optimism and ruminant thinking. In addition, age and schooling -more than gender- significantly affect the experience of these variables, which should be taken into account for future research. It is considered that this study managed to scrutinize the relationship as well as differences in the behavior of these variables from a broader angle and in a sample of 404 participants, resulting in a contribution to the understanding of them, of the constructs and this group.